Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory Situational leadership theory, in simple terms talks about different leadership styles and how a leader can choose an appropriate style with respect to team that he/she is leading and situation in which they are in, to complete the given task. An organization fasces different situations in different times depending on many factors, internal and external which are hard to control. Situational leadership theory helps an organization to face this kind of circumstances. Hersey and Blanchard (1969-1977), first introduced a theory named life cycle theory of leadership which was then developed and renamed to situational leadership theory. Hersey and Blanchard talks about.. Four leadership styles and how a leader can choose different style depending on the maturity level of the team members. Maturity of the team members can be defined as the individuals knowledge required to complete the given task, commitment and willingness to complete the given task. Different styles define, where the leaders focus should be i.e. on team members or on the task. Vroom and Normative talk about How can a leader increasing the team members commitment, effectiveness and efficiency through, allowing team members to participate in decision making. Decision making is a process of deciding what the goals are and how the team is going to achieve them? And how far a leader can allow team members to participate in the decision making? depending on various situations. House and Mitchell (1974) talked about Various styles a leader can chose to explain the vision to the team members and to support them when they get blocked or having difficulty in completing the task, depending on the situation. (The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, 1974) Explanation According to Hersey and Blanchard The team members of a team can be divided in to four groups depending on their commitment, required knowledge for the job, and willingness to work, which is also known as maturity level of the team. And a leader should choose an appropriate leadership style depending on the maturity level of the team. If the team members doesnt have required knowledge for the job, and they are not committed and willing to work. Leader should keep more focus on completing the given task compared to focus on the team members needs. If the team members are somewhat committed to and have knowledge about the work, but not willing to work. Leader should keep more focus on completing the given task as well as team members needs. If the team has the required job knowledge but are not willing and committed to work. Leader should focus more on teams needs compared to completing the given task. If the team has the required job knowledge, and are willing and committed to work. Leader can keep less focus on teams needs as well as completing the given task. According to Vroom and Normative When the team members are allowed to participate in the process of developing goals and paths to achieve goals, then they show more commitment and willingness to work. Depending on the situation a leader can choose to Take information or advice from team members, and then choose few that he/she likes. Share the ideas with team members, discuss with individuals then choose few that he/she likes. Share the ideas with team members, discuss with the group and listen to the new ideas and choose few to follow. Share the ideas with the team and then follows according to the majority of the teams decision. This model only focuses on decision making strategies in the organisation and how they can affect the performance of the team members. According to House and Mitchell (1974) Leaders chooses goals that organization is going to reach and how they are going to reach the goals alone. However, leaders can explain clearly or not clearly the way that team should follow and he/she can also support team to face the difficulties on the way to reach the goals. Leader can also provide rewards to the team members who are performing well to increase the commitment and willingness of the team. Depending on the situation they can choose different styles like Supportive Leadership: Here leaders focus is more on the team members needs and creating a supportive environment for the team in times of high work pressure. Directive Leadership: Here leader focuses on both the team members needs and completing the given task, gives them information which is needed and supports them when necessary. Participative Leadership: Works with the team, allows them to develop new ideas and considers them when he/she is taking decisions. Achievement-Oriented Leadership: Here leaders develop themselves and the team. They take challenging tasks and decisions to achieve goals which are tough to achieve. Critical view on Situational Leadership Theory Claude L Graeff said Theoretical issues undermining the robustness of the situational leadership theory and the utility of its prescriptive model and discusses. More specifically, conceptual ambiguity associated with the mechanics of applying the concept of job-relevant maturity and other problems with the normative model are seen as seriously limiting its pragmatic utility. (Academy of management. The academy of management review 1986. ABI/INFORM Global) The situational leadership theory even though many pioneer, has many disadvantages. Every model has its own advantages and disadvantages like Job maturity talks about the required knowledge to do the job, where as maturity considers many other factors like experience in the job, general knowledge and problem solving abilities, etc. Self-esteem and confidence play a vital role in an individuals performance which comes under psychological maturity, which was never mentioned in the theories. Participation in decision making can increase pressure on the team and also can bring misunderstandings between the team members. The relationship between decision making and increase in commitment and willingness of the team members is not always directly proportional; sometimes it may result in serious problems. If leader is focusing less on the task and the path that team is following to reach the task, the team may lose the way and not achieve the goals in time. Relevance with Contemporary Organizations Albert Humphrey (1960-1970), created a tool which helps an organization to understand its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. With the help of this tool an organization can develop strategies to overcome weaknesses and threats, and to improve strengths and opportunities. Organizations are facing more and more competition as globalization and international markets are growing. Most of the organizations are depending on the same resources, so it is important for a leader to use the resources properly to achieve the given task. And to achieve this, a leader should use appropriate styles according to ever changing situations. To analyse external factors which affect the organization, another model PESTEL analysis can be used which talks about factors like Politics, Economics, Social, Technological, Environmental, Legal factors, which an organization cannot control, and any change in these factors can change the situation an organization is working in. So, it is important that leaders should change their styles and behaviours according to the situations and help the team to complete the given task. Example: Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan recently triggered nuclear meltdown in the nation, which not only affected the nations economy but also worlds economy. Organizations which are based in Japan even though doesnt got any direct impact from the natural disaster have lost their stocks. In situations that cannot be controlled by the organization it is necessary for the leaders to help the team and the organization by playing different roles according to the situation. Conclusion This theory talks about following different approaches according to or appropriate to the situations, the developers also helped to form or build different strategies to follow in different cases. So it is a process of influencing the maturity of the follower or team to achieve the given goal in a given situation. Here a leader must be focus on both team and the task, more or less. Reference P. Hersey, K. H Blanchard and William Morrow (1999). Leadership and the One Minute Manager. P. Hersey, K. H Blanchard and D. E Johnson (2007). Management of Organizational Behaviour: Leading Human Resources. Prentice Hall. V. H Vroom and P. W Yetton (1973). Leadership and decision-making. University of Pittsburg Press. R. J House (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly. R. J House and T. R Mitchell (1974). Path-Goal Theory of Leadership. Contemporary Business. M. G Evans (1970). The effect of supervisory behaviour on the path-goal relationship. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance.

The Origin of Emotion Labour

The Origin of Emotion Labour Emotions are feelings that people experience, interpret, reflect on, express, and manage (Thoits, 1989). They arise through social interaction, and are influenced by social, cultural, interpersonal, and situational conditions (Martin, 1999). In many situations in our daily lives, we often find ourselves suppressing feelings and displaying a more socially accepted emotion that is deemed more appropriate. For example, showing excitement about a companys promotion or suppressing fury when being cut off by someone in a waiting line. Regulating individuals emotions to comply with social norms then is referred to as emotion work (Hochschild, 1990; p. 118). When we need to display particular emotions and suppress others, which required by our job roles, we do our emotion management for a wage. Hochschild (1983) termed this regulation of ones emotions to comply with occupational or organizational norms as emotional labour. She defined emotional labour as the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display; emotional labour is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value (Hochschild, 1983; p.7). According to Hochschild (1983), jobs involving emotional labour possess three characteristics: they require the workers to make facial or voice contact with the public; they require the worker to produce an emotional state in the client or customer, and they provide the employer with an opportunity to utilize some control over the emotional activities of workers (Hochschild, 1983). Based on impression management, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) defined emotional labour as the act of displaying the appropriate emotion. Their definition differs from Hochschilds (1983), since their definition emphasizes the actual behaviour rather than the presumed emotions underlying the behaviour (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). According to Morris and Feldman (1997), emotional labour possesses the following characteristics: (a) emotion work occurs in face-to-face or voice-to-voice interactions with clients; (b) emotions are displayed to influence other peoples emotions, attitudes and behaviours; and (c) the display of emotions has to follow certain rules. 2.1.2 Dimensions of Emotional Labour and Its Measures Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) restructured emotional labour into two categories: One focuses on the characteristic of the job and the other emphasizes employees emotion management process. The former is called job-focused emotional labour which includes the frequency, duration, variety, and intensity of emotional labour and display rules. The latter is named employee-focused emotional labour, an emotion management skill that employees use in the course of interactions with clients. This category includes surface acting and deep acting. Brotheridge and Lee (2003) used the similar approach. They developed an emotional labour measure including both job-focused and employee-focused variables. Specifically, their measure has six facets: frequency of interaction, intensity and variety of emotional display, duration of interaction, and surface and deep acting. Emotional labour researchers often ignored spontaneous and genuine emotions, acknowledged as passive deep acting by Hochschild (1983), in the development of the emotional labour measure. Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand (2005) constructed the display of naturally felt emotions as an independent factor and formed a three-dimensional emotional labour instrument: surface acting, deep acting, and naturally felt emotions. In summary, despite many different measures developed, the general view is that job-related variables, such as frequency, intensity, variety, and display rules are experienced as the antecedents of emotional labour rather than emotional labour itself and two acting modes (surface and deep acting), that employees use to match the required emotional display are regarded as the true components of emotional labour (Grandey, 2000 A.A. Grandey, Emotion regulation in the workplace: a new way to conceptualize emotional labor, Journal of Occupational health Psychology 5 (1) (2000), pp. 95-110. Abstract | icon_pdfPDF (1059 K) | Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (124)Grandey, 2000). 2.1.3 Servicing Acting Based on Goffmans (1959) dramaturgical perspective of social interactions, Hochschild theorized that service is a show where the service provider is an actor, the customer is the audience, and the work setting is the stage (Grandey, 1999). The work place (restaurant) provides the setting and circumstance that allows actors (wait staff) to perform for audiences (diners). The interaction between actors and audiences is based on their mutual definition of the setting, which can be interpreted as occupational or organizational norms or display rules. Surface acting and deep acting are two types of acting mechanism that emotional labour preformed. 2.1.3.1 Surface Acting Surface acting is a discrepancy between felt and displayed emotion (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Surface acting involves employees simulating emotions that are not actually felt, by changing their outward appearances (i.e., facial expression, gestures, or voice tone) when exhibiting required emotions. For example, a hotel front desk employee may put on a smile and cheerfully greet a customer even if she or he is feeling down. In this case, the front desk clerk feigns emotions that are not experienced (Chu, 2002, P.18). Using the surface acting technique, people change the outward expression of emotion in the service of altering their inner feelings. By changing facial or bodily expressions, such as slumped shoulders, bowed head, or drooping mouth, inner feelings can be altered to a coincident state (Hochschild, 1993). 2.1.3.2 Deep Acting Deep acting occurs when employees feelings do not fit the situation; they then use their training or past experience to work up appropriate emotions (Chu, 2002, P.19). Unlike surface acting, deep acting involves changing inner feelings by altering something more than outward appearance. In surface acting, feelings are changed from the outside in, whereas feelings are changed from the inside out in deep acting (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild (1983) classified deep acting as (1) exhorting feeling, whereby one actively attempts to evoke or suppress an emotion, and (2) trained imagination, whereby one actively invokes thoughts, images, and memories to cause the related emotion (thinking of a wedding to feel happy or a funeral to feel sad). In other words, employees use their training or past experiences to help summoning appropriate emotions or responses (sadness, cheerfulness) for a given scene. By practicing deep acting, emotions are actively induced, suppressed, or shaped (Kruml Geddes, 2000). 2.1.4 Functions of Emotion Labour Zapf (2002, P.248) stated that Emotion work is a part of an overall task and, thus, it helps to fulfil the overall task and increase task effectiveness. Ashforth, B.E. and Humphrey, R.H., 1993. Emotional labor in service roles: the influence of identity. Academy of Management Review 18, pp. 88-115. Full Text via CrossRefAshforth and Humphrey (1993) consider emotion work as a form of impression management because by showing certain emotions the employee deliberately attempts to foster certain social perceptions of him- or herself. Emotion work is done to influence the emotions of the clients either as the ultimate or as an instrumental goal. In the service business, the premise is that customers or clients would be more likely to do business with an organization when they experience the interaction with service providers positively. This should mainly depend on how far the interaction with the service providers either supports or threatens their self-esteem. Emotion labour may help to make the social interaction more calculable and assist to avoid embarrassing situations that might otherwise interrupt the interaction with clients (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Moreover, emotion work may help to develop or stabilize the organization-customer relationship for building trust in the organization. This is more important in the service sector than in other sectors; because (1) it is difficult to assess the quality of service; (2), because the service product is immediately consumed and corrections, such as giving the product back, are impossible (Ashforth and Nerdinger, 1994); (3), emotion labour should influence the clients emotions thereby influencing their cognitions and behaviours. (4), influencing a clients emotion may make other things easier. In the entertainment business and in the helping professions, influencing the clients emotion may be the ultimate goal. 2.2 Antecedents of Emotional Labour Antecedents of emotional labour including two characteristics: individual characteristics and job characteristics. 2.2.1 Individual characteristics Emotional labour researchers seem to agree that service workers emotional acting can be explained by personality traits because personal dispositions underlie much of the way that people think and behave (Ashkanasy, Hartel and Daus, 2002). Two personality variables as the antecedents of emotional labour will be examined, which are negative affectivity and intrinsic motivation. 2.2.1.1 Negative Affectivity Negative affectivity is a dispositional personality variable and an individuals tendency to experience discomfort across time and situations (Watson and Clark, 1984). Individuals high in negative affectivity tend to resident the negative aspects of themselves, others, and situations in a generally more negative way and often seem to be anxious, nervous, and afraid (Cropanzano et al., 1993 R. Cropanzano, K. James and M.A. Konovsky, Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance, Journal of Organizational Behavior 14 (6) (1993), pp. 595-606. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (118)Cropanzano, James, and Konovsky, 1993). Individuals low in negative affectivity are typically in states of calmness and peace (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). As discussed by Liu, Perrewe, Hochwarter, and Kacmar (2004), negative emotional experiences is aroused by negative affectivity to across time and situations that may obstruct individua ls to regulate their emotional experiences in the service encounter. Such individuals appear to fake their positive emotions when necessary (Kim, 2008). The relationship between negative affectivity and stressors is also supported by the basic theory of heat-affect-overload (Van De Vliert and Van Yperen, 1996). Specifically, employees living and working in hot climates of countries such as Nigeria, Indonesia, and Singapore are high in negative affectivity and experience role overload. It has been proposed that availability of heat or hot climate deranges the thermoregulatory system of the human body and leads to negative affectivity. Such high negative affectivity individuals are faced with higher role overload. According to Osman and Kayode (2008), who studied in emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion among hotel employees in Nigeria, they stated that even though the hotels may have functioning air-conditioning systems, regular power cut or outages due to poor electric power infrastructure in Nigeria may cause frustration among employees and customers. In addition, the high cost of running alternative power source like generators limits the proper use of the air-conditioning systems in most of the hotels. Frontline hotel employees such as door attendants, food servers, and beverage servers have to serve customers in outdoor facilities, such employees are exposed to direct sunlight and humidity under these circumstances. Most of the frontline employees cannot afford to buy air-conditioning systems in their houses; if they could, they do not enjoy it due to irregular power supply in the country. Furthermore, they may not have sufficient financial resources to buy automobiles having air -conditioning systems. Therefore, such employees usually far from their houses go to work, using modes of public transportation such as buses, which are overloaded and are devoid of air-conditioning systems. Accordingly, frontline hotel employees in a country such as Nigeria are high in negative affectivity and experience-deepened stress. Employees in frontline service jobs of the hospitality industry in Nigeria are expected to manage their emotions by changing their outward appearance to display organizationally desired emotions while the inner feelings remain unchanged and thus are likely to experience emotional exhaustion (Osman and Kayode, 2008). In addition, negative affectivity is widely used in strain-related research and has been linked with emotional exhaustion (Houkes, Janssen, De Jonge, and Nijhuis, 2001). In their meta-analytic work, Thoresen et al., 2003 C.J. Thoresen, S.A. Kaplan, A.P. Barsky, C.R. Warren and K. De Chermont, The affective underpinnings of job perceptions and attitudes: a meta-analytic review and integration, Psychological Bulletin 129 (6) (2003), pp. 914-945. Abstract | Article | icon_pdfPDF (244 K) | Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (78)Thoresen, Kaplan, Barsky, Warren, and De Chermont (2003) reported an estimated mean population correlation of .54 between negative affectivity and emotional exhaustion. According to Spector, Zapf, Chen, and Frese, (2000), the perception mechanism also proposes useful guidelines for developing the relevant hypotheses. That is, the perception mechanism states that high negative affectivity individuals tend to perceive their jobs as s tressful and experience high levels of strains. It means, high negative affectivity frontline employees in the hotel industry are susceptible to higher emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion. 2.2.1.2 Intrinsic Motivation Another personality variable used as the antecedents of emotional labour is intrinsic motivation. To date various personal resources or personality variables (e.g., self-efficacy, optimism, and locus of control) have been examined with regard to emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion (Ito and Brotheridge, 2003). As a personal resource and a key personality variable, intrinsic motivation has not received much empirical attention in the hospitality management and marketing literatures (Karatepe and Uludag, 2007). Intrinsic motivation refers to an individuals feeling of challenge or competence derived from performing a job (Keaveney, 1992, p.151). Intrinsically motivated employees have better problem-solving skills and are innovative (Miller, 2002). Grant (2008, p.49) states that intrinsically motivated individuals feel naturally drawn, or pulled, toward completing their work, are process focused-they see the work as an end in and of itself, and are present focused-they are concerned with the experience of performing the work itself. Consistent with the Conservation of Resources Theory, intrinsic motivation is one of the personal resources that can be used for coping with emotional dissonance and exhaustion. As a personal resource, intrinsic motivation can affect employees willingness and perceived effort to manage emotional experiences in the service encounter. Such a personal resource can also be invested in aiding the process of stress resistance and can contribute to the maintenance of res ource reservoirs (Hobfoll, 2001). Consequently, employees with personal resources have mastery that enables them to cope with demanding or forbidding conditions more effectively and thus prevents them from experiencing emotional exhaustion (Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, and Schaufeli, 2007). Recently, Karatepe and Uludag (2007) also demonstrated that intrinsic motivation lowered emotional exhaustion for a sample of frontline hotel employees in Northern Cyprus. 2.2.2 Job Characteristics 2.2.2.1 Interaction Characteristics Customer satisfaction depends on the quality of the interpersonal interaction between the customer and frontline employees (Bitner, 1990). Hochschild (1983) argued that job characteristics such as numerous interactions with customers are likely to increase service providers emotional labour. Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) found that frequency and variety of emotional display were positively related to surface acting and deep acting and that duration was positively related to deep acting. In the article by Brotheridge and Lee (2003), frequency and variety showed a positive relationship with surface acting and deep acting, although duration was not related to either acting. Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand (2005) reported interaction characteristics (frequency, duration, and routineness) were not significant predictors of surface acting but mostly related to deep acting. Specifically, duration had a positive impact on deep acting and routineness showed a negative influence on deep ac ting. The most popular theory regarding the relationship between customer contact variables and emotional labour strategies originates from Morris and Feldman, 1996 J.A. Morris and D.C. Feldman, The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labor, The Academy of Management Review 21 (4) (1996), pp. 986-1010. Full Text via CrossRefMorris and Feldmans (1996) conceptual work. The authors argued that the more often a work role requires socially proper emotional displays, the greater the companys demand for emotional regulation and the greater employees emotional labour; frequent changes in the variety of emotions to fit in different situational contexts require more planning and anticipation on the part of service employees, thereby entailing greater emotional labour; and emotional displays of long duration require more effort than short duration, leading to greater emotional labour. This notion suggests the possibility of frequency, variety, and duration increasing emotional labo ur in general (both surface and deep acting). However, previous findings especially regarding duration seem to suggest that duration largely leads to deep acting. Deep acting may be the strategy of choice during long interaction because it becomes difficult for employees to fake emotion for a long period of time (Diefendorff et al., 2005). 2.2.2.2 Job Autonomy The hospitality literature has shown that job autonomy can mitigate the level of hospitality employees emotional exhaustion (Kim, Shin, and Umbreit 2007). Morris and Feldman (1996, 1997) suggested employees who have less autonomy over their behaviour should feel more emotive dissonance, which likely leads them to fake feelings (surface acting); and those who have more autonomy experience less emotive dissonance, therefore they are likely to express their natural emotions. According to their rationale, job autonomy is not related to emotive effort (i.e., deep acting). 2.2.2.3 Display Rules According to Hochschild, 1983 A.R. Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA (1983).Hochschild (1983), service occupations involve strong norms and/or expectations regarding displays of emotions. Research has shown that display rules have a positive relationship with emotional acting (Brotheridge and Lee, 2002). Some studies separate display rules into positive and negative rules. Positive display rules evaluate service providers recognitions on expressing positive emotions and negative display rules evaluate the recognitions regarding suppressing negative emotions at work. Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) showed that both types of display rules were positively correlated with both types of acting. Diefendorff and Richard (2003) hypothesized that perceived demands (positive and negative display rules) would be positively related to emotional display, but the result indicated that emotional display only led by positive rule demands. Diefendorff et al. (2005) found that positive display rules were positively correlated with deep acting and negative display rules were positively correlated with surface acting. The authors explained that positive rules (what to express) clarify expectations better and result in good faith attempts (deep acting), whereas negative rules (what not to express) lead employees to just go through the motion and fake their emotions (surface acting). In hospitality organizations such as hotel companies, distinct norms are often included in the job description and employees are trained consistently (e.g., showing a smile with a mirthful greeting). Hence, it seems plausible that hotel firms display rules increase the likelihood of hotel personnels emotional regulation, leading to emotional acting either surface or deep acting. Therefore, in harmony with Brotheridge and Grandeys (2002) work, it is predicted that display rules, regardless of the type, will affect both acting strategies. 2.3 Consequences of Emotional Labour Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) described emotional labour as a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it can facilitate task performance by regulating interactions and precluding interpersonal problems. On the other hand, it can impair performance by priming expectations of good service that cannot be met (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). The following section discusses the positive and negative consequences of performing emotional labour, and particularly, its effects on employees psychological well-being. 2.3.1 Negative Consequences 2.3.1.1 Fusion of Self and Work Role In the emotional labour literature, substantial research in this field addresses unfavourable outcomes. The most-often-cited outcomes are burnout and job dissatisfaction (Morris and Feldman, 1996). Other impacts on the individuals psychological well-being are also discussed in the literature, such as poor self-esteem, depression, cynicism, role alienation, and self-alienation (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). Wharton (1999) suggested two reasons why the regulation of service providers emotional displays is problematic. First, to ensure service quality, employers often implement behaviour scripts (such as smile, eye contact, body position, tone of voice) for service providers to follow. This restrictive script prevents service providers from interacting with customers based on spontaneous intuition, but on a script drawn up by employers. That is, workers own complex for interaction may be suppressed and replaced by an organizationally sanctioned response (Wharton, 1999). Second, service providers may have different interests vis-à  -vis the outcome of the interaction. That is, employers believe that service providers emotional displays are instruments of service excellence. While front-line employees may sometimes share those objectives, they do not always do so. In these instances, workers interests may be sacrificed. Hochschild (1983) theorized about the consequences of emotional labor based on service providers capacity to strike a balance between the requirements of the self and the demands of the work role. Sustained performance of emotional labour may produce a fusion of self and work role, an estrangement between self and work role that comes at the expense of the self, or a separation between self and work role that comes at the expense of the work role (Hochschild, 1983). The fusion of self and work role can be seen as the service providers inability to depersonalize and detach themselves from the work roles. Research has shown that workers in human service occupations, such as social work or counselling, are often too identified with their work roles and lose the ability to maintain sufficient psychological distance between the emotional requirements of their job and their sense of self. For example, hotel service providers use deep acting techniques to conjure up desired positive emotions and to suppress felt negative emotions. But after awhile, many these service providers reveal that they have a hard time recovering their true feelings once their shifts are over. They begin to lose track of when they are acting and when they are not (Hochschild, 1983). 2.3.1.2 Emotive Dissonance Contrarily, another potential consequence of emotional labour is the estrangement between self and work role. Just as workers on the assembling lines become estranged from their bodies, service providers may become estranged from their true feelings (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild claimed that most of the negative consequences of performing emotional labour have its roots in this estrangement. The estrangement between oneself and the work role is often presented in the forms of emotive dissonance or unauthenticated, which can be seen as a result of surface acting. Similar to cognitive dissonance, emotive dissonance reflects a gap between felt emotions and expressed emotions. For example, a front desk employee greets a customer in a cheerful and enthusiastic manner but indeed, she or he feels down and unhappy. The inconsistency between expressed emotions (cheerful and enthusiastic) and felt emotions (down and unhappy) is emotive dissonance. Based on the assumption that people are motivated to maintain and enhance their sense of self as being meaningful and authentic (Erickson Wharton, 1997), the experience of emotive dissonance may cause the individual to feel false and insincere. Researchers suggest that the regular occurrence of emotive dissonance may be harmful in terms of employees personal and work-related maladjustment, such as poor self-esteem, depression, and alienation from work (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Hochschild (1993) suggested that emotive dissonance is most harmful to employees psychological well-being when it comes at the expense of the self, and is less harmful when it is at the expense of the work role. When emotive dissonance comes at the expense of the self, employees blame themselves for displaying fictitious emotions and feelings of unauthenticated. Thereafter, this estrangement of oneself leads to negative consequences such as depression (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993), drug or alcohol abuse (Hochschild, 1983), and low self-efficacy (Seeman, 1991). Antithetically, when emotive dissonance comes at the expense of the work role, employees ascribe this false emotion or inauthentic expression to the demands of the job rather than to the desires of the self (Wharton, 1999), and thus it may be less harmful in terms of their psychological well-being. In an interview with a waitress, Paules (1991) documented how one waitress does not overextend herself into her work. The waitress says that when she distances herself from her job she does not feel bad about it (Paules, 1991, p.286). 2.3.2 Positive Consequences Although substantial literature on emotional labor implies negative consequences, some researchers have suggested positive consequences for both organizations and individuals. 2.3.2.1 Organization For an organization, regulating employees emotional display in a highly scripted manner can ensure task effectiveness and service quality (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993), and increase sales and repeated business (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987). Also, the positive aspects of emotional labour include financial rewards (i.e., tips or salaries) (Rafaeli Sutton, 1987); increased satisfaction, security, and brand loyalty (Wharton, 1993). 2.3.2.2 Individual Although customers are major stress-producing figures for front-line employees, customers also provide employees with many entertaining and satisfying moments in their working (Tolich, 1993). One reason for this satisfaction is that customers enliven otherwise monotonous tasks. Most of the entry-level jobs in the service industry are highly routine and standardized (i.e., supermarket clerks or food servers). Because of the variety of customers, their presence, even when annoying, is only somewhat distracting, and can be stimulating (Tolich, 1993). Rose (2001) recognized the positive function of emotional labour because interaction with customers serves as a comic relief; he conducted an extensive qualitative study on waitresses working-life. He described the sources of satisfaction for wait staff as below: Some waitresses gain satisfaction from contributing to a customers enjoyment (you supply nurturing and sustenance, the things that make life pleasurable). Some respond to the hustle and stimulation of a busy restaurant, the sense of being in the middle of thingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦some like the attention (the spotlights on you)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..some comment on the pleasure of the attenuated human interaction: though well never get to know each other, theres a really nice feelings that go back and forth (Rose, 2000, p. 19). Roses (2000) case studies offer some support for the argument that performing emotional labour is not always psychologically damaging. The interaction with the public, being at the centre of attention or a sense of joy when knowing ones work is altruistic in nature all bring some intrinsic rewards to ones job when performing emotional labour. The reward or benefit aspect of performing emotional labour receives some empirical support. Wharton (1993) found that workers employed in jobs requiring substantial amounts of emotional labour experience higher job satisfaction and lower emotional exhaustion than other workers (Wharton, 1993). Adelman (1989) found a similar result for table servers. She concluded that, contrary to Hochschilds estrangement assumption, performing emotional labour does not adversely impact employees psychological well-being, but enhances their job satisfaction (Adelman, 1989). 2.4 Moderators of Emotional Labour 2.4.1 Successful Recruitment and Selection Karatepe and Aleshinloye (2009) pointed out that in order to fill vacant positions in organizations, managers should use effective recruitment and selection tools. It is significant that managers should consider the personality traits of candidates in the selection process, focus on candidates who are intrinsically motivated, and try to hire those who can manage their felt emotions matching organizationally desired display norms in the service encounter. This should be a far-reaching practice among hospitality managers. By doing so, managers can go some way to making such frontline employees manage problems associated with emotional dissonance and exhaustion. Another implication for practice is that employing mentors in the workplace appears to be inevitable, since younger, less educated and less experienced employees are confronted with emotional dissonance and exhaustion (Karatepe and Aleshinloye, 2009). Mentors could help such employees alleviate their emotional dissonance and exhaustion by listening to employees problems and their expectations from the management of the hotel and providing support and guidance (Lee and Akhtar, 2007). 2.4.2 Adequate Training Karatepe and Aleshinloye (2009) also suggested that frontline employees should be trained continuously to learn how to cope with problems that stem from emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion. This is significant, because effective and continuous training programs in the hospitality industry are not abundant. Therefore, managers should foster social support arising from both supervisors and co-workers in the workplace during these training programs and train their frontline employees in the areas of complaint handling procedures and genuine customer care. Such training programs would also comprise of potential empowerment practices frontline employees would use to deal with customers complaints. The final implication is associated with promotional

Misunderstanding in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: Free Essay Writer

Misunderstanding in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Walter Cunningham arriving and presenting himself at the finch household poses some questions for Jem. Firstly she cannot understand the agricultural terms as Atticus and Walter discuss crops. â€Å"†¦but there’s another’n at the house now that’s field size.† Jem takes this as Walter saying that he has employed someone to help with the cutting and thus asks him if he paid with a bushel of potatoes. Jem’s mindset of the Cunningham’s not paying money but paying in whatever ways they can comes from Atticus’ advice in the previous pages. Jem’s amazement at how Atticus and Walter talked together like two men clearly comes from a misunderstanding of the Cunningham household. Her understanding of the Cunninghams are that they are not the sharpest tools in the shed. Her amazement is highlighted by the quote, â€Å"†¦he and Atticus talked together like two men, to the wonderment of Jem and me.† Again, later on in the extract, Jem does not understand that Walter is equally as human as she is. Once again Harper Lee presents the facts with a little innuendo which touches on discrimination which is basically the heart of the book. â€Å"He ain’t company, Cal, he’s just a Cunningham.† Another of Jem’s misunderstandings is the molasses incident. Again she cannot understand why Walter drenches his food in molasses. It probably will originate from Walter’s upbringing as a â€Å"farm boy†. Molasses was probably cheap as chips on the farm where financial difficulty was rife. The author however employs a skilful phrase used in the South of America when describing Jem’s amazement, â€Å"†¦what the sam hill he was doing.† Jem does however understand that Calpurnia is one coloured person who is educated. Jem realizes this by how good her grammar was during tranquility. Again there is a misunderstanding on Jem’s part. She generalizes by implies that most coloured folk are not educated. The author presents these facts in such a way that it touches a major theme of the book, misunderstanding. As Calpurnia sent Jem off with a smack, Jem remarked that she’ll go and drown herself in Barker’s Eddy. This stresses the fact that Jem does not understand the ways and means of discipline. The author presents Jem almost as a headstrong girl who just cannot accept that this coloured lady could tell her what to do and how to present herself. Once again Miss Caroline Fisher comes into play. Her strict accordance to the rules of the new teaching system does not allow Jem to read or write.

Gothic Theme in Chapter 5 of Frankenstein Essay -- Mary Shelley

Gothic Horror has been described as â€Å"delightful horror†. Focusing on Chapter 5 of Frankenstein, how has Shelley used the Gothic Genre to explore deeper issues? The term ‘Gothic’ conjures a range of possible meanings, definitions and associations. It explicitly denotes certain historical and cultural phenomena. Gothicism was part of the Romantic Movement that started in the eighteenth century and lasted about three decades into the nineteenth century. For this essay, the definition of Gothic that is applicable is: An 18th century literary style characterized by gloom and the supernatural. In the Gothic novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, a wide range of issues are explored. Frankenstein represents an entirely new vision of the female Gothic, along with many other traditional themes such as religion, science, colonialism and myth. Mary Shelley, the author of the novel Frankenstein, was born on August 30th 1797. He father, William Godwin, was a philosopher, and her mother was Mary Wollstonecraft, who is still well known for being an author and one of the first feminists. But unfortunately Mary Shelley’s mother died of puerperal fever ten days after giving birth to her daughter. As Mary’s father was a philosopher, Mary had to listen to many intellectual talks. Mary was strongly impressed by the brilliant talks she listened to since she was young as she was surrounded by famous writers and philosophers. The intellectual environment in which she lived stimulated her Romantic sensibility and the political revolutionary ideas of the time. Later on in life Mary married a man named Percy Bysshe Shelley. Percy was a poet and a member of the Romantic Movement. But unfortunately Mary had to elope with Shelley at the age of 16 as he was... ...t agitation, listening attentively, catching and fearing each sound as if it were to announce the approach of the demonical corpse which I had so miserably given life.† The archaic vocabulary such as â€Å"demonical† and â€Å"I took refuge† are not words or phrases that we would particularly use today but here it shows Victor’s own scientific and religious readings are perhaps too dated and too passionate. To conclude, I believe that this novel gives a warning to the reader. I believe that it is telling us not to push the boundaries of reality and not to tamper with things that would perhaps be better left alone, because the consequences are unknown, unpredictable and unnatural. It tells us that death and birth are things that in the modern world we just have to accept, and that we should not even attempt to exceed mortal limitations: Playing God should be left to God.

Incidents in The Life of a Slave Girl Essay -- essays research papers

Using the pseudonym Linda Brent, Harriet Jacobs wrote Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, to alert Northern white women to the dangers faced by enslaved African American women in the South. The narrative details her experience of slavery, emphasizing the sexual harassment she experienced working in the home of Dr. Flint (Dr. James Norcom). Because Linda Brent's Aunt Martha (Molly Horniblow, Jacobs' grandmother) was well known and respected in the community—and lived nearby—Flint was afraid to force himself on Linda where it might be discovered and relayed to the rest of the community. When he tried to secretly sell Aunt Martha to eliminate her interference, she forced him to do it at public auction; he was humiliated and her freedom was purchased by one of her many admirers. Flint th...

Corruption in Bolt’s ‘Man for All Seasons’

Most of us, politically, mentally, morally, socially, live somewhere between the negative pole of Robert Bolt’s â€Å"terrifying cosmos [where] †¦no laws, no sanctions, no mores obtain† (xvi), the nadir of the human spirit and self, and the positive pole he finds in Thomas More, who makes, not only in oaths but in all his dealings, â€Å"an identity between the truth †¦ and his own virtue,† and â€Å"offers himself as a guarantee† (xiii-xiv) – a self which proves incorruptible by either promise or punishment. Near to More’s level of righteousness are his wife and daughter, though he feels the need to protect them from perjuring themselves, a corruption stemming from one of the hardest temptations, protecting their family from harm. Rich and Cromwell are nearer to the lower pole in the play, the former making the complete arc from innocence to its opposite, and the latter starting from a place of moral bankruptcy and guiding Rich there with him. In between is the political corruption of King Henry who won’t let â€Å"all the Popes back to St. Peter [get] between me and my duty† (54), and of Woolsey’s appeal to More along patriotic and anti-war lines. With the exception of More, and those who anchor themselves to him like his family and Will Roper, they are all, like the Boatman’s wife, â€Å"losing [their] shape, sir. Losing it fast† (28). Richard Rich is the play’s most developed exemplar of the gradual, and gradually accelerating, course t hat leads, through corrupt action, to corruption’s end-point: a shell without a self. As the Common Man, in the guise of Matthew, correctly predicts, Rich â€Å"come[s] to nothing† (17), despite his final worldly status, symbolized by his rich robes which, as that same Man says elsewhere of all clothing, say nothing about the man inside them, â€Å"barely cover[ing] one man’s nakedness† (3). Oliver Cromwell, a disciple of Machiavelli, and unashamedly corrupt, is Rich’s teacher and exhorter along that road. Rich is bullied into telling Cromwell information that might harm Thomas More, a betrayal. Cromwell uses this sin as a teaching opportunity – the more you give in to corruption (and therefore the less of you there is left to struggle against it), the easier it becomes: CROMWELL There, that wasn’t too painful, was it? RICH (laughing a little and a little rueful) No! CROMWELL That’s all there is, and you’ll find it easier next time. (76) Richard Rich sums up the teachings of Machiavelli, embodied in Cromwell, as quintessentially empty (though Rich is too fearful for his worldly status to be afraid of the legitimately fearful consequence of following those teachings): â€Å"properly apprehended, [Macchiavelli] has no doctrine. Master Cromwell has the sense of it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (13). In following Cromwell into philosophical corruption, Rich will reap the rewards of such pragmatism. More, at the apex of Rich’s ascent to influence and wealth (he’s been named Attorney General for Wales as a reward for perjury), reminds Rich that â€Å"it profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world† (158). That word, â€Å"nothing,† both represents that he doesn’t gain anything worth having, and that he will, in consequence, add to the absence of his being – what he will gain is nothingness. The reasons Rich and Cromwell are tempted are simple in that they (the reasons) are particular to self-profit (More, and perhaps Bolt through More, would find that an ironic term): personal wealth, influence and power, and escape from suffering. Cardinal Woolsey tempts More with a form of corruption less black-and-white: not merely Cromwell’s short-sited â€Å"administrative convenience† (73), but a seemingly moral and patriotic act: possibly preventing a war of succession like the War of the Roses had been. â€Å"Oh your conscience is your own affair,† the Cardinal tells More, â€Å"but you’re a statesman! Do you remember the Yorkist wars? All right [my solution to this problem is, in that it isn’t perfectly moral,] regrettable, but necessary†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (22). It is a dilemma: whether the good of a country (or the prevention of an evil to a country) somehow outweighs the evil of achieving that end by corrupt means. More’s â€Å"horrible moral squint† (19), as Woolsey calls it, sees through the Cardinal’s assumption that such corruption, simply because it has a good in sight for that greater self that is one’s homeland, won’t open the door to further corruption, as a precedent that many (as it affects many) will follow, that will in fact â€Å"lead their country by a short route to chaos† (22). The form of corruption with which Thomas More will have to grapple most desperately, and from which he will protect his family most carefully, is the temptation to act against conscience, not for personal gain, or for the sake of an abstract like ‘the common good,’ but for loved ones. More knows that temptation, in this case to perjure themselves for his own sake, might topple even the upright Alice and Margaret. For that eason, despite the anger and suffering his wife and daughter evidence at being kept in the dark, he never once opens his mind to them about those issues (the real reason behind his resignation, which lands them in poverty, and imprisonment over taking an oath, which deprives them of father and husband, and puts them in danger) – a relief he must have craved were they the picture of understanding. However, though they are not – he tell’s Margaret â€Å"the King’s more merciful than you; he doesn’t use the rack† ( 142) – he holds firm. This he also does for himself, never taking the oath and perjuring himself to God (as, he says, â€Å"what is an oath then, but words we say to God† (140)), though he knows his family will suffer his ultimate loss. For that reason, though, he can go to his death with a special tranquility, telling the headsman â€Å"you send me to God †¦ He will not refuse one who is so blithe to go to him† (160). We are left, then, with so many who died long ago, and the tale that history, and this play, tells of them. Richard Rich loses himself to corruption for purely personal gain, and while he lives with outward wealth, he is inwardly rotten, and ends in obscurity. Cardinal Woolsey, who ruthlessly pursues personal power and uses the same tactics in pursuit of patriotic goals, is remembered as an influencer of the policies of Europe, but, in the play, paves the way for greater evil, though he tries to stave it off by electing More Lord Chancellor. That evil is personified in Cromwell, a man with no morals, patriotic or otherwise. That â€Å"short route to chaos† More warns of shows up as well in the escalation of the scale of resistance Henry levels against the Church, eventually destroying most of the monasteries in England, and sparking a bloodily put down revolution. More, meanwhile, is an inspiration not only for his family, but has inspired conscience and nobility of spirit for almost five hundred years since his death, which is its own kind of immortality.

Child Labour Essay

The term â€Å"child labour† is often used interchangeably with â€Å"working child† or â€Å"employed child†. While all these terms are defined on the basis of age of the person working. According to the Constitution of India, child labourer may be defined as a person who is below the age of 14 years and is working for an earning. However, child labour denies children the opportunities for mental and physical development and consequently their life chances are marred. Children engaged in domestic work or helping their parents in agricultural or household pursuits do not get income but their work interferes with their childhood activities like education and recreation. Hence child labour needs to be defined in a manner which will include both paid and unpaid work. The Operation Research Group of Boards has defined a child labourer as a person who is in the age group of 5 to 15 years and who is at paid or unpaid work and remains busy for any hour of the day within or outside the family. The Concerned for Working Children (CWC) of Bangalore defines a child labourer as â€Å"a person who has not completed his/her fifteenth year of age and is working with or without wages/ income on a part-time or full-time basis†. Poverty and adult unemployment are the main reasons for the existence of child labour, vested interests of employers also encourage its perpetuation. The employers pay low wage to child labour for the same quantum of work that adults can do. Types of Child Labour. The ILO has given a typology of child work which is applicable across the countries. The categories are as follows i) Domestic Non-monetary Work. Children in both rural and urban areas undertake unpaid work within the family for maintenance of the household. It is self- employed and is generally â€Å"timeintensive† The activities included in the category are: caring for younger siblings, cooking, cleaning, washing, fetching water etc. Such work in India is done mainly by girls. ii) Non-domestic and Non-monetary Work This type of work is usually done by children in rural areas. It includes activities like tending of livestock, protecting crops from birds and animals, hunting, weeding etc. This work is also timeintensive and is often intermixed with domestic work. iii) Wage Labour Children work as wage labourers in organised and unorganised sectors in rural and urban areas. They work in artisan production, small scale production, in trade, manufacturing and service occupations. They work in restaurants, as ragpickers, hawkers, newspaper vendors etc. They are preferred to adults because they can be paid low wage for the same quantum of work that an adult does. iv) Bonded Labour Children work as bonded labourers. They are pledged by the parents against a debt or loan till the loan with interest is repaid. They work in exchange of food or nominal wage. Sometimes, an agreement is made between the parents of the child and the employer to work for a specific period of time. The bonded labour system is found both in rural and urban unorganised sector. Although bonded labour is abolished by law, it is practiced in many parts of India even today. CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR ïÆ'Ëœ Poverty ïÆ'Ëœ Parental illiteracy ïÆ'Ëœ Tradition of making children learn the family skills ïÆ'Ëœ Absence of universal compulsory Primary education ïÆ'Ëœ Social apathy and tolerance of child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Ignorance of the parents about the adverse consequences of Child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Ineffective enforcement of the legal provisions pertaining to child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Non-availability of and non-accessibility to schools ïÆ'Ëœ Irrelevant and non-attractive school curriculum ïÆ'Ëœ Employers prefer children as they constitute cheap labour and they are not able to organize themselves against exploitation Banning of Child Labour There are two opinions on the question of continuance or banning of child labour in India. One group of people think that child labour should be banned since it is detrimental to physical and mental health of the child and is against the Directive Principles of the Constitution of India. The other group considers abolition of poverty as a pre-condition for abolition of child labour. They pled that child labour should be regulated so that children are not employed in hazardous work. The Government of India is taking steps to constitute a Technical Committee for identifying occupations which are hazardous for children. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 prohibits the employment of child labour below age of 14 in factories, mines and in other firms of hazardous employment and regulates the working conditions of the children in other employment. Following another notification in 1993 under their law the government has prohibited employment of children in the Slaughter houses, printing, cashew de-scaling and processing, and soldering. In 1994 a National Authority for the elimination of Child Labour was set up under the chairmanship of the Labour Minister to co-ordinate the efforts of different arms of the government for the progressive elimination of child labour. The Government of India has also adopted a National Labour Policy in 1987 in accordance with the constitutional mandate and the prevailing legislation on child labour. // o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t=†Ã¢â‚¬ ,o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "studymoose.com"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e